Which of Those Gay Greeks Flew Too Close to the Sun Again

Greek mythological hero

Ancient Greek polychromatic pottery painting (dating to c. 300 BC) of Achilles during the Trojan War

In Greek mythology, Achilles ( ə-KIL-eez) or Achilleus (Greek: Ἀχιλλεύς ) was a hero of the Trojan War, the greatest of all the Greek warriors, and is the cardinal character of Homer's Iliad. He was the son of the Nereid Thetis and Peleus, king of Phthia.

Achilles' most notable feat during the Trojan War was the slaying of the Trojan prince Hector outside the gates of Troy. Although the death of Achilles is not presented in the Iliad, other sources concur that he was killed well-nigh the end of the Trojan War past Paris, who shot him with an arrow. Later legends (start with Statius' unfinished epic Achilleid, written in the 1st century AD) state that Achilles was invulnerable in all of his trunk except for i heel, considering when his mother Thetis dipped him in the river Styx equally an infant, she held him by 1 of his heels. Alluding to these legends, the term "Achilles' heel" has come to mean a bespeak of weakness, especially in someone or something with an otherwise strong constitution. The Achilles tendon is likewise named after him due to these legends.

Etymology

Linear B tablets attest to the personal proper noun Achilleus in the forms a-ki-re-u and a-ki-re-nosotros,^[i] the latter existence the dative of the old.^[2] The proper noun grew more popular, even becoming common soon after the seventh century BC^[3] and was besides turned into the female class Ἀχιλλεία (Achilleía), attested in Attica in the fourth century BC (IG Ii² 1617) and, in the form Achillia, on a stele in Halicarnassus every bit the proper noun of a female gladiator fighting an "Amazon".

Achilles' name can exist analyzed as a combination of ἄχος ( áchos ) "distress, pain, sorrow, grief"^[4] and λαός ( laós ) "people, soldiers, nation", resulting in a proto-course *Akhí-lāu̯os "he who has the people distressed" or "he whose people have distress".^[5] ^[6] The grief or distress of the people is a theme raised numerous times in the Iliad (and frequently past Achilles himself). Achilles' part as the hero of grief or distress forms an ironic juxtaposition with the conventional view of him as the hero of κλέος kléos ("glory", usually in state of war). Furthermore, laós has been construed by Gregory Nagy, post-obit Leonard Palmer, to mean "a corps of soldiers", a muster.^[half-dozen] With this derivation, the proper name obtains a double meaning in the poem: when the hero is functioning rightly, his men bring distress to the enemy, but when wrongly, his men go the grief of war. The poem is in role about the misdirection of anger on the part of leadership.

Another etymology relates the name to a Proto-Indo-European compound *h₂eḱ-pṓds "sharp foot" which first gave an Illyrian *āk̂pediós, evolving through fourth dimension into *ākhpdeós and then *akhiddeús. The shift from -dd- to -ll- is then ascribed to the passing of the proper name into Greek via a Pre-Greek source. The first root function *h₂eḱ- "abrupt, pointed" likewise gave Greek ἀκή (akḗ "betoken, silence, healing"), ἀκμή (akmḗ "point, edge, zenith") and ὀξύς (oxús "sharp, pointed, groovy, quick, clever"), whereas ἄχος stems from the root *h₂egʰ- "to be upset, afraid". The whole expression would exist comparable to the Latin acupedius "swift of human foot". Compare too the Latin discussion family of aciēs "abrupt edge or point, battle line, battle, engagement", acus "needle, pin, bodkin", and acuō "to make pointed, sharpen, whet; to exercise; to agitate" (whence acute).^[7] Some topical epitheta of Achilles in the Iliad point to this "swift-footedness", namely ποδάρκης δῖος Ἀχιλλεὺς (podárkēs dĩos Achilleús "swift-footed divine Achilles")^[8] or, even more frequently, πόδας ὠκὺς Ἀχιλλεύς (pódas ōkús Achilleús "quick-footed Achilles").^[ix]

Some researchers deem the name a loan word, possibly from a Pre-Greek linguistic communication.^[ane] Achilles' descent from the Nereid Thetis and a similarity of his name with those of river deities such as Acheron and Achelous accept led to speculations about his being an erstwhile h2o divinity (see below Worship).^[x] Robert Due south. P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin of the proper noun, based among other things on the coexistence of -λλ- and -λ- in ballsy language, which may account for a palatalized phoneme /l^y/ in the original linguistic communication.^[ii]

Nativity and early years

Achilles was the son of the Thetis, a nereid, and Peleus, the king of the Myrmidons. Zeus and Poseidon had been rivals for Thetis's hand in matrimony until Prometheus, the fore-thinker, warned Zeus of a prophecy (originally uttered by Themis, goddess of divine police) that Thetis would bear a son greater than his male parent. For this reason, the ii gods withdrew their pursuit, and had her wed Peleus.^[eleven]

There is a tale which offers an alternative version of these events: In the Argonautica (4.760) Zeus' sister and married woman Hera alludes to Thetis' celibate resistance to the advances of Zeus, pointing out that Thetis was so loyal to Hera'due south marriage bond that she coolly rejected the father of gods. Thetis, although a daughter of the bounding main-god Nereus, was also brought up by Hera, farther explaining her resistance to the advances of Zeus. Zeus was furious and decreed that she would never marry an immortal.^[12]

According to the Achilleid, written by Statius in the 1st century AD, and to non-surviving previous sources, when Achilles was built-in Thetis tried to make him immortal by dipping him in the river Styx; however, he was left vulnerable at the office of the body by which she held him: his left heel^[13] ^[14] (see Achilles' heel, Achilles' tendon). It is not clear if this version of events was known earlier. In some other version of this story, Thetis anointed the boy in ambrosia and put him on top of a burn in order to burn down away the mortal parts of his body. She was interrupted by Peleus and abased both father and son in a rage.^[15]

None of the sources before Statius make any reference to this full general invulnerability. To the opposite, in the Iliad, Homer mentions Achilles being wounded: in Book 21 the Paeonian hero Asteropaeus, son of Pelagon, challenged Achilles by the river Scamander. He was ambidextrous, and cast a spear from each paw; ane grazed Achilles' elbow, "drawing a spurt of claret".^[16]

In the few fragmentary poems of the Epic Cycle which describe the hero's death (i.e. the Cypria, the Niggling Iliad past Lesches of Pyrrha, the Aithiopis and Iliou persis by Arctinus of Miletus), at that place is no trace of any reference to his full general invulnerability or his famous weakness at the heel. In the subsequently vase paintings presenting the decease of Achilles, the pointer (or in many cases, arrows) hit his trunk.

Peleus entrusted Achilles to Chiron the Centaur, who lived on Mount Pelion, to be reared.^[17] Thetis foretold that her son's fate was either to gain glory and dice young, or to alive a long but uneventful life in obscurity. Achilles chose the former, and decided to take part in the Trojan War.^[xviii] According to Homer, Achilles grew upwardly in Phthia with his companion Patroclus.^[ane]

According to Photius, the sixth book of the New History past Ptolemy Hephaestion reported that Thetis burned in a hugger-mugger identify the children she had by Peleus. When she had Achilles, Peleus noticed, tore him from the flames with only a burnt foot, and confided him to the centaur Chiron. After Chiron exhumed the body of the Damysus, who was the fastest of all the giants, removed the ankle, and incorporated information technology into Achilles' burnt foot.^[xix]

Other names

Among the appellations under which Achilles is by and large known are the following:^[twenty]

Pyrisous, "saved from the burn down", his kickoff name, which seems to favour the tradition in which his mortal parts were burned past his mother Thetis
Aeacides, from his grandfather Aeacus
Aemonius, from Aemonia, a country which afterwards caused the name of Thessaly
Aspetos, "inimitable" or "vast", his proper noun at Epirus
Larissaeus, from Larissa (also chosen Cremaste), a town of Thessaly, which even so bears the same name
Ligyron, his original name
Nereius, from his mother Thetis, 1 of the Nereids
Pelides, from his father, Peleus
Phthius, from his birthplace, Phthia
Podarkes, "swift-footed", due to the wings of Arke being fastened to his feet.^[21]

Hidden on Skyros

Some postal service-Homeric sources^[22] claim that in guild to keep Achilles safe from the war, Thetis (or, in some versions, Peleus) hid the beau at the court of Lycomedes, male monarch of Skyros.

There, Achilles was disguised as a girl and lived amidst Lycomedes' daughters, perhaps under the name "Pyrrha" (the ruby-red-haired girl), Cercysera or Aissa ("swift"^[23]).^[24] With Lycomedes' daughter Deidamia, whom in the business relationship of Statius he raped, Achilles there fathered two sons, Neoptolemus (likewise called Pyrrhus, later his father's possible alias) and Oneiros. According to this story, Odysseus learned from the prophet Calchas that the Achaeans would be unable to capture Troy without Achilles' help. Odysseus went to Skyros in the guise of a peddler selling women'south dress and jewellery and placed a shield and spear amidst his goods. When Achilles instantly took up the spear, Odysseus saw through his disguise and convinced him to join the Greek campaign. In another version of the story, Odysseus arranged for a trumpet alarm to be sounded while he was with Lycomedes' women. While the women fled in panic, Achilles prepared to defend the court, thus giving his identity away.

In the Trojan War

According to the Iliad, Achilles arrived at Troy with fifty ships, each conveying 50 Myrmidons. He appointed five leaders (each leader commanding 500 Myrmidons): Menesthius, Eudorus, Peisander, Phoenix and Alcimedon.^[25]

Telephus

When the Greeks left for the Trojan War, they accidentally stopped in Mysia, ruled by King Telephus. In the resulting battle, Achilles gave Telephus a wound that would not heal; Telephus consulted an oracle, who stated that "he that wounded shall heal". Guided past the oracle, he arrived at Argos, where Achilles healed him in order that he might go their guide for the voyage to Troy.^[26]

Co-ordinate to other reports in Euripides' lost play about Telephus, he went to Aulis pretending to be a beggar and asked Achilles to heal his wound. Achilles refused, challenge to take no medical knowledge. Alternatively, Telephus held Orestes for ransom, the bribe being Achilles' aid in healing the wound. Odysseus reasoned that the spear had inflicted the wound; therefore, the spear must exist able to heal information technology. Pieces of the spear were scraped off onto the wound and Telephus was healed.^[26]

Troilus

Achilles slaying Troilus, carmine-figure kylix signed past Euphronios

Co-ordinate to the Cypria (the part of the Ballsy Cycle that tells the events of the Trojan State of war earlier Achilles' wrath), when the Achaeans desired to return dwelling house, they were restrained past Achilles, who afterwards attacked the cattle of Aeneas, sacked neighbouring cities (similar Pedasus and Lyrnessus, where the Greeks capture the queen Briseis) and killed Tenes, a son of Apollo, besides equally Priam's son Troilus in the sanctuary of Apollo Thymbraios; however, the romance between Troilus and Chryseis described in Geoffrey Chaucer'south Troilus and Criseyde and in William Shakespeare's Troilus and Cressida is a medieval invention.^[27] ^[1]

In Dares Phrygius' Account of the Destruction of Troy,^[28] the Latin summary through which the story of Achilles was transmitted to medieval Europe, as well every bit in older accounts, Troilus was a young Trojan prince, the youngest of King Priam's and Hecuba's five legitimate sons (or according other sources, some other son of Apollo).^[29] Despite his youth, he was 1 of the main Trojan state of war leaders, a "equus caballus fighter" or "chariot fighter" according to Homer.^[30] Prophecies linked Troilus' fate to that of Troy and and so he was ambushed in an attempt to capture him. Notwithstanding Achilles, struck by the beauty of both Troilus and his sister Polyxena, and overcome with lust, directed his sexual attentions on the youth – who, refusing to yield, instead found himself decapitated upon an altar-omphalos of Apollo Thymbraios.^[31] ^[32] Later versions of the story suggested Troilus was accidentally killed by Achilles in an over-agog lovers' embrace.^[33] In this version of the myth, Achilles' death therefore came in retribution for this sacrilege.^[31] ^[34] Aboriginal writers treated Troilus equally the epitome of a dead child mourned by his parents. Had Troilus lived to machismo, the First Vatican Mythographer claimed, Troy would take been invincible; however, the motif is older and found already in Plautus' Bacchides.^[35]

In the Iliad

Homer'south Iliad is the most famous narrative of Achilles' deeds in the Trojan War. Achilles' wrath (μῆνις Ἀχιλλέως, mênis Achilléōs) is the cardinal theme of the poem. The first two lines of the Iliad read:

Μῆνιν ἄειδε θεὰ Πηληιάδεω Ἀχιλῆος οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκε, [...]	Sing, Goddess, of the rage of Peleus' son Achilles, the accursed rage that brought neat suffering to the Achaeans, [...]

The Homeric epic just covers a few weeks of the decade-long war, and does not narrate Achilles' decease. Information technology begins with Achilles' withdrawal from battle subsequently existence dishonoured by Agamemnon, the commander of the Achaean forces. Agamemnon has taken a woman named Chryseis as his slave. Her father Chryses, a priest of Apollo, begs Agamemnon to return her to him. Agamemnon refuses, and Apollo sends a plague amongst the Greeks. The prophet Calchas correctly determines the source of the troubles but will not speak unless Achilles vows to protect him. Achilles does so, and Calchas declares that Chryseis must exist returned to her father. Agamemnon consents, just then commands that Achilles' battle prize Briseis, the daughter of Briseus, be brought to him to replace Chryseis. Angry at the dishonour of having his plunder and glory taken away (and, as he says afterwards, because he loves Briseis),^[36] with the urging of his mother Thetis, Achilles refuses to fight or lead his troops alongside the other Greek forces. At the same time, burning with rage over Agamemnon's theft, Achilles prays to Thetis to convince Zeus to help the Trojans gain footing in the state of war, so that he may regain his laurels.

Equally the battle turns against the Greeks, thanks to the influence of Zeus, Nestor declares that the Trojans are winning because Agamemnon has angered Achilles, and urges the king to appease the warrior. Agamemnon agrees and sends Odysseus and two other chieftains, Ajax and Phoenix. They promise that, if Achilles returns to battle, Agamemnon will render the convict Briseis and other gifts. Achilles rejects all Agamemnon offers him and simply urges the Greeks to canvas abode as he was planning to practise.

The Trojans, led by Hector, subsequently push the Greek ground forces dorsum toward the beaches and assault the Greek ships. With the Greek forces on the verge of absolute destruction, Patroclus leads the Myrmidons into boxing, wearing Achilles' armour, though Achilles remains at his camp. Patroclus succeeds in pushing the Trojans dorsum from the beaches, simply is killed by Hector earlier he can lead a proper attack on the city of Troy.

After receiving the news of the death of Patroclus from Antilochus, the son of Nestor, Achilles grieves over his beloved companion's decease. His female parent Thetis comes to comfort the distraught Achilles. She persuades Hephaestus to make new armour for him, in place of the armour that Patroclus had been wearing, which was taken past Hector. The new armour includes the Shield of Achilles, described in swell detail in the poem.

Enraged over the death of Patroclus, Achilles ends his refusal to fight and takes the field, killing many men in his rage only always seeking out Hector. Achilles even engages in battle with the river god Scamander, who has become angry that Achilles is choking his waters with all the men he has killed. The god tries to drown Achilles merely is stopped by Hera and Hephaestus. Zeus himself takes annotation of Achilles' rage and sends the gods to restrain him so that he will not keep to sack Troy itself before the time allotted for its devastation, seeming to testify that the unhindered rage of Achilles can defy fate itself. Finally, Achilles finds his prey. Achilles chases Hector effectually the wall of Troy three times before Athena, in the form of Hector's favorite and dearest brother, Deiphobus, persuades Hector to terminate running and fight Achilles face to face. Later on Hector realizes the trick, he knows the boxing is inevitable. Wanting to go down fighting, he charges at Achilles with his just weapon, his sword, merely misses. Accepting his fate, Hector begs Achilles non to spare his life, but to treat his body with respect afterwards killing him. Achilles tells Hector it is hopeless to look that of him, declaring that "my rage, my fury would bulldoze me now to hack your flesh away and eat y'all raw – such agonies y'all accept caused me".^[37] Achilles so kills Hector and drags his corpse by its heels behind his chariot. After having a dream where Patroclus begs Achilles to hold his funeral, Achilles hosts a series of funeral games in honour of his companion.^[38]

At the onset of his duel with Hector, Achilles is referred to every bit the brightest star in the heaven, which comes on in the fall, Orion's dog (Sirius); a sign of evil. During the cremation of Patroclus, he is compared to Hesperus, the evening/western star (Venus), while the burning of the funeral pyre lasts until Phosphorus, the morn/eastern star (besides Venus) has set (descended).

With the assistance of the god Hermes (Argeiphontes), Hector's father Priam goes to Achilles' tent to plead with Achilles for the return of Hector's body so that he can be buried. Achilles relents and promises a truce for the duration of the funeral, lasting 9 days with a burial on the 10th (in the tradition of Niobe'due south offspring). The poem ends with a description of Hector's funeral, with the doom of Troy and Achilles himself all the same to come.

After ballsy accounts: fighting Penthesilea and Memnon

Achilles and Memnon fighting, between Thetis and Eos, Cranium black-figure amphora, c. 510 BC, from Vulci

The Aethiopis (seventh century BC) and a work named Posthomerica, equanimous by Quintus of Smyrna in the fourth century CE, relate further events from the Trojan War. When Penthesilea, queen of the Amazons and daughter of Ares, arrives in Troy, Priam hopes that she will defeat Achilles. After his temporary truce with Priam, Achilles fights and kills the warrior queen, only to grieve over her expiry later on.^[39] At offset, he was so distracted by her beauty, he did not fight equally intensely as usual. Once he realized that his distraction was endangering his life, he refocused and killed her.

Following the death of Patroclus, Nestor's son Antilochus becomes Achilles' closest companion. When Memnon, son of the Dawn Goddess Eos and rex of Ethiopia, slays Antilochus, Achilles over again obtains revenge on the battleground, killing Memnon. Consequently, Eos volition non let the lord's day rising until Zeus persuades her. The fight betwixt Achilles and Memnon over Antilochus echoes that of Achilles and Hector over Patroclus, except that Memnon (unlike Hector) was also the son of a goddess.

Many Homeric scholars argued that episode inspired many details in the Iliad 'southward description of the death of Patroclus and Achilles' reaction to information technology. The episode then formed the ground of the cyclic epic Aethiopis, which was composed subsequently the Iliad, possibly in the 7th century BC. The Aethiopis is now lost, except for scattered fragments quoted by later on authors.

Achilles disposed Patroclus wounded past an pointer, Cranium red-figure kylix, c. 500 BC (Altes Museum, Berlin)

Achilles and Patroclus

The exact nature of Achilles' relationship with Patroclus has been a subject of dispute in both the classical catamenia and modern times. In the Iliad, it appears to be the model of a deep and loyal friendship. Homer does not suggest that Achilles and his close friend Patroclus had sexual relations.^[xl] ^[41] Although there is no direct evidence in the text of the Iliad that Achilles and Patroclus were lovers, this theory was expressed by some later on authors. Commentators from classical antiquity to the nowadays take often interpreted the relationship through the lens of their ain cultures. In 5th-century BCE Athens, the intense bond was often viewed in lite of the Greek custom of paiderasteia. In Plato's Symposium, the participants in a dialogue near love assume that Achilles and Patroclus were a couple; Phaedrus argues that Achilles was the younger and more beautiful 1 then he was the love and Patroclus was the lover.^[42] However, ancient Greek had no words to distinguish heterosexual and homosexual,^[43] and information technology was assumed that a man could both want handsome immature men and have sexual activity with women. Many pairs of men throughout history have been compared to Achilles and Patroclus to imply a homosexual relationship.

Death

Dying Achilles (Achilleas thniskon) in the gardens of the Achilleion

The death of Achilles, even if considered solely every bit it occurred in the oldest sources, is a complex one, with many different versions.^[44] In the oldest version, the Iliad, and as predicted by Hector with his dying breath, the hero's death was brought nigh by Paris with an pointer (to the heel co-ordinate to Statius). In some versions, the god Apollo guided Paris' arrow. Some retellings as well land that Achilles was scaling the gates of Troy and was hit with a poisoned pointer. All of these versions deny Paris whatsoever sort of valour, owing to the common formulation that Paris was a coward and not the man his blood brother Hector was, and Achilles remained undefeated on the battlefield.

Afterwards death, Achilles' bones were mingled with those of Patroclus, and funeral games were held. He was represented in the Aethiopis as living after his death in the isle of Leuke at the mouth of the river Danube. Another version of Achilles' expiry is that he fell deeply in love with one of the Trojan princesses, Polyxena. Achilles asks Priam for Polyxena's mitt in union. Priam is willing because it would mean the end of the war and an alliance with the world's greatest warrior. Just while Priam is overseeing the private marriage of Polyxena and Achilles, Paris, who would have to surrender Helen if Achilles married his sister, hides in the bushes and shoots Achilles with a divine arrow, killing him.

In the Odyssey, Agamemnon informs Achilles of his pompous burial and the erection of his mound at the Hellespont while they are receiving the expressionless suitors in Hades.^[45] He claims they built a massive burial mound on the embankment of Ilion that could be seen by anyone approaching from the ocean.^[46] Achilles was cremated and his ashes buried in the same urn as those of Patroclus.^[47] Paris was later killed past Philoctetes using the enormous bow of Heracles.

In Book 11 of Homer's Odyssey, Odysseus sails to the underworld and converses with the shades. I of these is Achilles, who when greeted every bit "blessed in life, blessed in death", responds that he would rather be a slave to the worst of masters than be king of all the dead. But Achilles so asks Odysseus of his son's exploits in the Trojan war, and when Odysseus tells of Neoptolemus' heroic actions, Achilles is filled with satisfaction.^[48] This leaves the reader with an ambiguous agreement of how Achilles felt about the heroic life.

According to some accounts, he had married Medea in life, so that subsequently both their deaths they were united in the Elysian Fields of Hades – as Hera promised Thetis in Apollonius' Argonautica (3rd century BC).

Fate of Achilles' armour

Oinochoe, ca 520 BC, Ajax and Odysseus fighting over the armour of Achilles

Achilles' armour was the object of a feud between Odysseus and Telamonian Ajax (Ajax the greater). They competed for information technology past giving speeches on why they were the bravest subsequently Achilles to their Trojan prisoners, who, after considering both men's presentations, decided Odysseus was more than deserving of the armour. Furious, Ajax cursed Odysseus, which earned him the ire of Athena, who temporarily made Ajax so mad with grief and ache that he began killing sheep, thinking them his comrades. Afterwards a while, when Athena lifted his madness and Ajax realized that he had actually been killing sheep, he was and then aback that he committed suicide. Odysseus eventually gave the armour to Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles. When Odysseus encounters the shade of Ajax much later in the House of Hades (Odyssey 11.543–566), Ajax is however so angry about the effect of the competition that he refuses to speak to Odysseus.

A relic claimed to exist Achilles' bronze-headed spear was preserved for centuries in the temple of Athena on the acropolis of Phaselis, Lycia, a port on the Pamphylian Gulf. The city was visited in 333 BCE by Alexander the Not bad, who envisioned himself as the new Achilles and carried the Iliad with him, but his court biographers practice non mention the spear; however, it was shown in the time of Pausanias in the 2nd century CE.^[49] ^[50]

Achilles, Ajax and a game of petteia

Numerous paintings on pottery accept suggested a tale not mentioned in the literary traditions. At some point in the state of war, Achilles and Ajax were playing a board game (petteia).^[51] ^[52] They were absorbed in the game and oblivious to the surrounding battle.^[53] The Trojans attacked and reached the heroes, who were saved only past an intervention of Athena.^[54]

Worship and heroic cult

Detail of Achilles

The tomb of Achilles,^[56] extant throughout antiquity in Troad,^[57] was venerated by Thessalians, but also by Persian expeditionary forces, too as by Alexander the Corking and the Roman emperor Caracalla.^[58] Achilles' cult was also to be found at other places, e. yard. on the island of Astypalaea in the Sporades,^[59] in Sparta which had a sanctuary,^[60] in Elis and in Achilles' homeland Thessaly, as well as in the Magna Graecia cities of Tarentum, Locri and Croton,^[61] bookkeeping for an almost Panhellenic cult to the hero.

The cult of Achilles is illustrated in the 500 BCE Polyxena sarcophagus, which depicts the sacrifice of Polyxena near the tumulus of Achilles.^[62] Strabo (13.1.32) also suggested that such a cult of Achilles existed in Troad:^[55] ^[63]

Near the Sigeium is a temple and monument of Achilles, and monuments as well of Patroclus and Anthlochus. The Ilienses perform sacred ceremonies in honour of them all, and even of Ajax. Just they do not worship Hercules, alleging as a reason that he ravaged their country.

The spread and intensity of the hero's veneration amid the Greeks that had settled on the northern declension of the Pontus Euxinus, today'southward Black Sea, appears to have been remarkable. An archaic cult is attested for the Milesian colony of Olbia as well equally for an island in the centre of the Blackness Bounding main, today identified with Snake Island (Ukrainian Зміїний, Zmiinyi, near Kiliya, Ukraine). Early on dedicatory inscriptions from the Greek colonies on the Blackness Bounding main (graffiti and inscribed clay disks, these possibly being votive offerings, from Olbia, the surface area of Berezan Island and the Tauric Chersonese^[65]) attest the existence of a heroic cult of Achilles^[66] from the sixth century BC onwards. The cult was nevertheless thriving in the third century CE, when dedicatory stelae from Olbia refer to an Achilles Pontárchēs (Ποντάρχης, roughly "lord of the Ocean," or "of the Pontus Euxinus"), who was invoked as a protector of the city of Olbia, venerated on par with Olympian gods such as the local Apollo Prostates, Hermes Agoraeus,^[58] or Poseidon.^[67]

Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD) in his Natural History mentions a "port of the Achæi" and an "isle of Achilles", famous for the tomb of that "man" ( portus Achaeorum, insula Achillis, tumulo eius viri clara ), situated somewhat nearby Olbia and the Dnieper-Problems Estuary; furthermore, at 125 Roman miles from this island, he places a peninsula "which stretches forth in the shape of a sword" obliquely, called Dromos Achilleos (Ἀχιλλέως δρόμος, Achilléōs drómos "the Race-course of Achilles")^[68] and considered the identify of the hero'southward do or of games instituted by him.^[58] This last feature of Pliny'south account is considered to be the iconic spit, called today Tendra (or Kosa Tendra and Kosa Djarilgatch), situated betwixt the mouth of the Dnieper and Karkinit Bay, simply which is inappreciably 125 Roman miles (c. 185 km) away from the Dnieper-Bug estuary, as Pliny states. (To the "Race-course" he gives a length of fourscore miles, c. 120 km, whereas the spit measures c. lxx km today.)

In the following chapter of his volume, Pliny refers to the same isle as Achillea and introduces two further names for it: Leuce or Macaron (from Greek [νῆσος] μακαρῶν "isle of the blest"). The "nowadays solar day" measures, he gives at this point, seem to business relationship for an identification of Achillea or Leuce with today'southward Snake Isle.^[69] Pliny's gimmicky Pomponius Mela (c. 43 Advertizement) tells that Achilles was buried on an island named Achillea, situated between the Borysthenes and the Ister, adding to the geographical confusion.^[lxx] Ruins of a foursquare temple, measuring 30 meters to a side, peradventure that dedicated to Achilles, were discovered by Captain Kritzikly (Russian: Критский, Николай Дмитриевич) in 1823 on Snake Island. A 2d exploration in 1840 showed that the construction of a lighthouse had destroyed all traces of this temple. A fifth century BC black-glazed lekythos inscription, found on the island in 1840, reads: "Glaukos, son of Poseidon, dedicated me to Achilles, lord of Leuke." In some other inscription from the fifth or 4th century BC, a statue is defended to Achilles, lord of Leuke, by a denizen of Olbia, while in a further dedication, the city of Olbia confirms its continuous maintenance of the isle's cult, again suggesting its quality equally a identify of a supra-regional hero veneration.^[58]

The heroic cult dedicated to Achilles on Leuce seems to go dorsum to an account from the lost epic Aethiopis co-ordinate to which, afterwards his untimely death, Thetis had snatched her son from the funeral pyre and removed him to a mythical Λεύκη Νῆσος (Leúkē Nêsos "White Island").^[71] Already in the fifth century BC, Pindar had mentioned a cult of Achilles on a "bright island" (φαεννά νᾶσος, phaenná nâsos) of the Black Ocean,^[72] while in another of his works, Pindar would retell the story of the immortalized Achilles living on a geographically indefinite Isle of the Blest together with other heroes such as his father Peleus and Cadmus.^[73] Well known is the connection of these mythological Fortunate Isles (μακαρῶν νῆσοι, makárôn nêsoi) or the Homeric Elysium with the stream Oceanus which according to Greek mythology surrounds the inhabited world, which should have accounted for the identification of the northern strands of the Euxine with information technology.^[58] Guy Hedreen has establish further testify for this connection of Achilles with the northern margin of the inhabited earth in a poem by Alcaeus, speaking of "Achilles lord of Scythia"^[74] and the opposition of North and Southward, as evoked by Achilles' fight against the Aethiopian prince Memnon, who in his turn would be removed to his homeland by his female parent Eos afterward his death.

The Periplus of the Euxine Sea (c. 130 AD) gives the following details:

It is said that the goddess Thetis raised this isle from the sea, for her son Achilles, who dwells there. Here is his temple and his statue, an archaic piece of work. This isle is not inhabited, and goats graze on it, not many, which the people who happen to arrive hither with their ships, sacrifice to Achilles. In this temple are as well deposited a great many holy gifts, craters, rings and precious stones, offered to Achilles in gratitude. One can still read inscriptions in Greek and Latin, in which Achilles is praised and celebrated. Some of these are worded in Patroclus' honour, because those who wish to be favored past Achilles, honour Patroclus at the aforementioned fourth dimension. There are likewise in this island endless numbers of body of water birds, which await after Achilles' temple. Every morning they fly out to sea, wet their wings with water, and return quickly to the temple and sprinkle it. And after they finish the sprinkling, they clean the hearth of the temple with their wings. Other people say still more, that some of the men who reach this island, come hither intentionally. They bring animals in their ships, destined to be sacrificed. Some of these animals they slaughter, others they set gratuitous on the island, in Achilles' award. But in that location are others, who are forced to come to this island by sea storms. As they take no sacrificial animals, but wish to get them from the god of the island himself, they consult Achilles' oracle. They inquire permission to slaughter the victims chosen from amid the animals that graze freely on the island, and to deposit in exchange the cost which they consider off-white. But in case the oracle denies them permission, because there is an oracle hither, they add something to the price offered, and if the oracle refuses over again, they add something more, until at last, the oracle agrees that the cost is sufficient. And so the victim doesn't run away whatever more, but waits willingly to be defenseless. So, there is a nifty quantity of silver there, consecrated to the hero, as price for the sacrificial victims. To some of the people who come to this island, Achilles appears in dreams, to others he would announced even during their navigation, if they were not also far abroad, and would instruct them as to which function of the island they would better anchor their ships.^[75]

The Greek geographer Dionysius Periegetes, who likely lived during the starting time century CE, wrote that the island was called Leuce "because the wild animals which live in that location are white. It is said that there, in Leuce island, reside the souls of Achilles and other heroes, and that they wander through the uninhabited valleys of this island; this is how Jove rewarded the men who had distinguished themselves through their virtues, because through virtue they had acquired everlasting award".^[76] Similarly, others chronicle the island's name to its white cliffs, snakes or birds dwelling at that place.^[58] ^[77] Pausanias has been told that the island is "covered with forests and full of animals, some wild, some tame. In this island in that location is also Achilles' temple and his statue".^[78] Leuce had as well a reputation as a identify of healing. Pausanias reports that the Delphic Pythia sent a lord of Croton to exist cured of a breast wound.^[79] Ammianus Marcellinus attributes the healing to waters (aquae) on the island.^[fourscore]

A number of of import commercial port cities of the Greek waters were defended to Achilles. Herodotus, Pliny the Elder and Strabo reported on the being of a town Achílleion (Ἀχίλλειον), built by settlers from Mytilene in the 6th century BC, shut to the hero's presumed burial mound in the Troad.^[57] After attestations signal to an Achílleion in Messenia (according to Stephanus Byzantinus) and an Achílleios (Ἀχίλλειος) in Laconia.^[81] Nicolae Densuşianu recognized a connection to Achilles in the names of Aquileia and of the northern arm of the Danube delta, called Chilia (presumably from an older Achileii), though his determination, that Leuce had sovereign rights over the Black Sea, evokes modern rather than archaic bounding main-law.^[75]

The kings of Epirus claimed to be descended from Achilles through his son, Neoptolemus. Alexander the Great, son of the Epirote princess Olympias, could therefore likewise claim this descent, and in many ways strove to be like his dandy ancestor. He is said to have visited the tomb of Achilles at Achilleion while passing Troy.^[82] In AD 216 the Roman Emperor Caracalla, while on his way to war against Parthia, emulated Alexander by property games effectually Achilles' tumulus.^[83]

Reception during antiquity

In Greek tragedy

The Greek tragedian Aeschylus wrote a trilogy of plays about Achilles, given the title Achilleis by mod scholars. The tragedies relate the deeds of Achilles during the Trojan War, including his defeat of Hector and eventual death when an arrow shot by Paris and guided past Apollo punctures his heel. Extant fragments of the Achilleis and other Aeschylean fragments take been assembled to produce a workable modern play. The first function of the Achilleis trilogy, The Myrmidons, focused on the relationship between Achilles and chorus, who represent the Achaean army and try to convince Achilles to give up his quarrel with Agamemnon; simply a few lines survive today.^[84] In Plato's Symposium, Phaedrus points out that Aeschylus portrayed Achilles every bit the lover and Patroclus equally the love; Phaedrus argues that this is incorrect considering Achilles, beingness the younger and more beautiful of the two, was the honey, who loved his lover so much that he chose to dice to avenge him.^[85]

The tragedian Sophocles as well wrote The Lovers of Achilles, a play with Achilles every bit the main graphic symbol. Simply a few fragments survive.^[86]

Towards the end of the 5th century BCE, a more negative view of Achilles emerges in Greek drama; Euripides refers to Achilles in a bitter or ironic tone in Hecuba, Electra, and Iphigenia in Aulis.^[87]

In Greek philosophy

Zeno

The philosopher Zeno of Elea centred one of his paradoxes on an imaginary footrace between "swift-footed" Achilles and a tortoise, by which he attempted to testify that Achilles could not take hold of up to a tortoise with a caput kickoff, and therefore that motility and change were impossible. Every bit a student of the monist Parmenides and a fellow member of the Eleatic school, Zeno believed time and motion to be illusions.

Plato

In Hippias Minor, a dialogue attributed to Plato, an arrogant man named Hippias argues with Socrates. The two get into a discussion about lying. They determine that a person who is intentionally simulated must be "improve" than a person who is unintentionally false, on the basis that someone who lies intentionally must understand the subject about which they are lying.^[88] Socrates uses diverse analogies, discussing athletics and the sciences to prove his signal. The 2 likewise reference Homer extensively. Socrates and Hippias agree that Odysseus, who concocted a number of lies throughout the Odyssey and other stories in the Trojan State of war Wheel, was fake intentionally. Achilles, like Odysseus, told numerous falsehoods. Hippias believes that Achilles was a by and large honest man, while Socrates believes that Achilles lied for his own do good. The ii argue over whether it is better to prevarication on purpose or by accident. Socrates eventually abandons Homeric arguments and makes sports analogies to drive home the signal: someone who does wrong on purpose is a ameliorate person than someone who does wrong unintentionally.

In Roman and medieval literature

The Romans, who traditionally traced their lineage to Troy, took a highly negative view of Achilles.^[87] Virgil refers to Achilles as a savage and a merciless butcher of men,^[89] while Horace portrays Achilles ruthlessly slaying women and children.^[xc] Other writers, such every bit Catullus, Propertius, and Ovid, represent a second strand of disparagement, with an emphasis on Achilles' erotic career. This strand continues in Latin accounts of the Trojan State of war by writers such as Dictys Cretensis and Dares Phrygius and in Benoît de Sainte-Maure'south Roman de Troie and Guido delle Colonne'southward Historia destructionis Troiae, which remained the most widely read and retold versions of the Matter of Troy until the 17th century.

Achilles was described by the Byzantine chronicler Leo the Deacon, non as Hellene, but as Scythian, while co-ordinate to the Byzantine author John Malalas, his army was made up of a tribe previously known as Myrmidons and later on every bit Bulgars.^[91] ^[92]

In modern literature and arts

Achilles and Agamemnon by Gottlieb Schick (1801)

Literature

Achilles appears in Dante's Inferno (composed 1308–1320). He is seen in Hell'southward second circle, that of lust.
Achilles is portrayed as a former hero who has become lazy and devoted to the honey of Patroclus, in William Shakespeare's Troilus and Cressida (1602).
The French dramatist Thomas Corneille wrote a tragedy La Mort d'Achille (1673).
Achilles is the field of study of the poem Achilleis (1799), a fragment by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.
In 1899, the Polish playwright, painter and poet Stanisław Wyspiański published a national drama, based on Smoothen history, named Achilles.
In 1921, Edward Shanks published The Island of Youth and Other Poems, concerned among others with Achilles.
The 1983 novel Kassandra by Christa Wolf too treats the death of Achilles.
Akhilles is killed by a poisoned Kentaur pointer shot by Kassandra in Marion Zimmer Bradley's novel The Firebrand (1987).
Achilles is ane of various 'narrators' in Colleen McCullough'south novel The Song of Troy (1998).
The Death of Achilles (Смерть Ахиллеса, 1998) is an historical detective novel by Russian writer Boris Akunin that alludes to various figures and motifs from the Iliad.
The character Achilles in Ender's Shadow (1999), by Orson Scott Card, shares his namesake's cunning heed and ruthless attitude.
Achilles is 1 of the chief characters in Dan Simmons's novels Ilium (2003) and Olympos (2005).
Achilles is a major supporting graphic symbol in David Gemmell's Troy series of books (2005–2007).
Achilles is the primary grapheme in David Malouf's novel Ransom (2009).
The ghost of Achilles appears in Rick Riordan's The Concluding Olympian (2009). He warns Percy Jackson about the Curse of Achilles and its side effects.
Achilles is a principal character in Terence Hawkins' 2009 novel The Rage of Achilles.
Achilles is a major graphic symbol in Madeline Miller's debut novel, The Song of Achilles (2011), which won the 2012 Orange Prize for Fiction. The novel explores the human relationship between Patroclus and Achilles from boyhood to the fateful events of the Iliad.
Achilles appears in the light novel series Fate/Apocrypha (2012–2014) as the Rider of Red.
Achilles is a main character in Pat Barker'due south 2018 novel The Silence of the Girls, much of which is narrated past his slave Briseis.

Visual arts

Achilles with the Daughters of Lycomedes is a subject treated in paintings by Anthony van Dyck (earlier 1618; Museo del Prado, Madrid) and Nicolas Poussin (c. 1652; Museum of Fine Arts, Boston) among others.
Peter Paul Rubens has authored a series of works on the life of Achilles, comprising the titles: Thetis dipping the infant Achilles into the river Styx, Achilles educated by the centaur Chiron, Achilles recognized among the daughters of Lycomedes, The wrath of Achilles, The decease of Hector, Thetis receiving the arms of Achilles from Vulcanus, The death of Achilles (Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam), and Briseis restored to Achilles (Detroit Institute of Arts; all c. 1630–1635)
Pieter van Lint, "Achilles Discovered among the Daughters of Lycomedes", 1645, at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem
Dying Achilles is a sculpture created past Christophe Veyrier (c. 1683; Victoria and Albert Museum, London).
The Rage of Achilles is a fresco by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1757, Villa Valmarana Ai Nani, Vicenza).
Eugène Delacroix painted a version of The Pedagogy of Achilles for the ceiling of the Paris Palais Bourbon (1833–1847), one of the seats of the French Parliament.
Arthur Kaan^[de] created a statue grouping Achilles and Penthesilea (1895; Vienna).
Achilleus (1908) is a lithography by Max Slevogt.

Music

Achilles has been frequently the subject field of operas, ballets and related genres.

Operas titled Deidamia were composed past Francesco Cavalli (1644) and George Frideric Handel (1739).
Achille et Polyxène (Paris 1687) is an opera begun by Jean-Baptiste Lully and finished past Pascal Collasse.
Achille et Déidamie (Paris 1735) is an opera equanimous by André Campra.
Achilles (London 1733) is a ballad opera, written by John Gay, parodied by Thomas Arne equally Achilles in petticoats in 1773.
Achille in Sciro is a libretto by Metastasio, composed by Domenico Sarro for the inauguration of the Teatro di San Carlo (Naples, 4 November 1737). An even earlier composition is from Antonio Caldara (Vienna 1736). After operas on the same libretto were composed by Leonardo Leo (Turin 1739), Niccolò Jommelli (Vienna 1749 and Rome 1772), Giuseppe Sarti (Copenhagen 1759 and Florence 1779), Johann Adolph Hasse (Naples 1759), Giovanni Paisiello (Leningrad 1772), Giuseppe Gazzaniga (Palermo 1781) and many others. It has also been set to music as Il Trionfo della gloria.
Achille (Vienna 1801) is an opera by Ferdinando Paër on a libretto by Giovanni de Gamerra.
Achille à Scyros (Paris 1804) is a ballet by Pierre Gardel, equanimous by Luigi Cherubini.
Achilles, oder Das zerstörte Troja ("Achilles, or Troy Destroyed", Bonn 1885) is an oratorio by the German composer Max Bruch.
Achilles auf Skyros (Stuttgart 1926) is a ballet by the Austrian-British composer and musicologist Egon Wellesz.
Achilles' Wrath is a concert piece by Sean O'Loughlin.^[93]
Achilles Last Stand a track on the 1976 Led Zeppelin album Presence.
Achilles, Agony and Ecstasy in 8 Parts is the kickoff song on the 1992 Manowar album The Triumph of Steel.
Achilles Come Down is a song on the 2017 Gang of Youths anthology Become Farther in Lightness.

Picture and tv

In films Achilles has been portrayed in the following films and television series:

The 1924 film Helena past Carlo Aldini
The 1954 film Ulysses past Piero Lulli
The 1956 film Helen of Troy past Stanley Bakery
The 1961 film The Trojan Horse by Arturo Dominici
The 1962 film The Fury of Achilles by Gordon Mitchell
The 1997 television miniseries The Odyssey past Richard Trewett
The 2003 boob tube miniseries Helen of Troy by Joe Montana
The 2004 moving picture Troy by Brad Pitt
The 2018 Television receiver serial Troy: Fall of a City by David Gyasi

Architecture

In 1890, Elisabeth of Bavaria, Empress of Austria, had a summer palace built in Corfu. The edifice is named the Achilleion, after Achilles. Its paintings and statuary depict scenes from the Trojan War, with item focus on Achilles.
The Wellington Monument is a statue representing Achilles erected as a memorial to Arthur Wellesley, the outset duke of Wellington, and his victories in the Peninsular State of war and the latter stages of the Napoleonic Wars.

Namesakes

The name of Achilles has been used for at least nine Purple Navy warships since 1744 – both as HMSAchilles and with the French spelling HMSAchille. A lx-gun send of that proper noun served at the Battle of Belleisle in 1761 while a 74-gun transport served at the Boxing of Trafalgar. Other boxing honours include Walcheren 1809. An armored cruiser of that name served in the Majestic Navy during the Offset World War.
HMNZSAchilles was a Leander-grade cruiser which served with the Royal New Zealand Navy in World State of war Two. It became famous for its part in the Boxing of the River Plate, aslope HMSAjax and HMSExeter. In improver to earning the battle accolade 'River Plate', HMNZS Achilles as well served at Guadalcanal 1942–1943 and Okinawa in 1945. Afterward returning to the Royal Navy, the ship was sold to the Indian Navy in 1948, but when she was scrapped parts of the ship were saved and preserved in New Zealand.
A species of cadger, Anolis achilles, which has widened heel plates, is named for Achilles.^[94]

Gallery

Achilles sacrificing to Zeus for Patroclus' prophylactic return,^[95] from the Ambrosian Iliad, a 5th-century illuminated manuscript
Achilles and Penthesilea fighting, Lucanian scarlet-figure bong-krater, late fifth century BC
Achilles killing Penthesilea, tondo of an Cranium cherry-effigy kylix, c. 465 BC, from Vulci.
Thetis and the Nereids mourning Achilles, Corinthian black-figure hydria, c. 555 BC (Louvre, Paris)
Head of Achilles depicted on a fourth-century BC coin from Kremaste, Phthia. Reverse: Thetis, wearing and holding the shield of Achilles with his AX monogram.
Achilles on a Roman mosaic with the Removal of Briseis, 2nd century

References

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Dorothea Sigel; Anne Ley; Bruno Bleckmann. "Achilles". In Hubert Cancik; et al. (eds.). Achilles. Brill's New Pauly. Brill Reference Online. doi:10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e102220. Accessed five May 2017.
^ ^a ^b Robert South. P. Beekes, Etymological Lexicon of Greek, Brill, 2009, pp. 183ff.
^ Epigraphical database gives 476 matches for Ἀχιλ-.The primeval ones: Corinth 7th c. BC, Delphi 530 BC, Attica and Elis fifth c. BC.
^ Scholia to the Iliad, 1.1.
^ Leonard Palmer (1963). The Interpretation of Mycenaean Greek Texts. Oxford: Clarendon Printing. p. 79.
^ ^a ^b Gregory Nagy. "The best of the Achaeans". CHS. The Center for Hellenic Studies, Harvard Academy. Retrieved 19 March 2015.
^ Cf. the Wiktionary entries "Ἀχιλλεύς" and *h₂eḱ-.
^ Iliad one.121, two.688.
^ E. g. Iliad 1.58, one.84, 1.148, 1.215, 1.364, i.489.
^ Cf. the supportive position of Hildebrecht Hommel (1980). "Der Gott Achilleus". Sitzungsberichte der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften (1): 38–44. – A critical point of view is taken by J. T. Hooker (1988). "The cults of Achilleus". Rheinisches Museum für Philologie. 131 (3): 1–7.
^ Aeschylus, Prometheus Spring 755–768; Pindar, Nemean 5.34–37, Isthmian eight.26–47; Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 3.13.5; Poeticon astronomicon 2.15.
^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 3.thirteen.5.
^ Statius, Achilleid i.269; Hyginus, Fabulae 107.
^ Jonathan S. Burgess (2009). The Decease and Afterlife of Achilles. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. nine. ISBN978-0-8018-9029-ane . Retrieved five February 2010.
^ Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica 4.869–879.
^ Homer (Robert Fagles translation). The Iliad. p. 525. But the other (spear) grazed Achilles' strong right arm and dark blood gushed as the spear shot past his back
^ Hesiod, Catalogue of Women, fr. 204.87–89 MW; Iliad 11.830–832.
^ Iliad nine.410ff.
^ Photius, Bibliotheca, cod. 190: "Thetis burned in a secret identify the children she had by Peleus; vi were born; when she had Achilles, Peleus noticed and tore him from the flames with merely a burnt human foot and confided him to Chiron. The latter exhumed the body of the giant Damysos who was cached at Pallene—Damysos was the fastest of all the giants—removed the 'astragale' and incorporated it into Achilles' pes using 'ingredients'. This 'astragale' savage when Achilles was pursued by Apollo and it was thus that Achilles, fallen, was killed. It is said, on the other hand, that he was called Podarkes by the Poet, considering, it is said, Thetis gave the newborn child the wings of Arce and Podarkes means that his feet had the wings of Arce."
^ One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain : Murray, John (1833). A Classical Manual: Being a Mythological, Historical and Geographical Commentary on Pope's Homer, and Dryden'due south Aeneid of Virgil, with a Copious Index. Albemarle Street, London. p. three.
^ Ptolemy Hephaestion, New History Book 6 (summary from Photius, Myriobiblon 190) (trans. Pearse) (Greek mythographer C1st to C2nd A.D.) : "It is said . . . that he [Akhilleus (Achilles)] was chosen Podarkes (Podarces, Swift-Footed) past the Poet [i.e. Homer], considering, it is said, Thetis gave the newborn child the wings of Arke (Arce) and Podarkes means that his feet had the wings of Arke. And Arke was the daughter of Thaumas and her sis was Iris; both had wings, just, during the struggle of the gods against the Titanes (Titans), Arke flew out of the camp of the gods and joined the Titanes. After the victory Zeus removed her wings before throwing her into Tartaros and, when he came to the wedding of Peleus and Thetis, he brought these wings equally a gift for Thetis.
^ Euripides, Skyrioi, surviving only in fragmentary form; Philostratus Junior, Imagines i; Scholiast on Homer's Iliad, 9.326; Ovid, Metamorphoses 13.162–180; Ovid, Tristia 2.409–412 (mentioning a Roman tragedy on this subject area); Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 3.13.8; Statius, Achilleid 1.689–880, ii.167ff.
^ Graves, Robert (2017). The Greek Myths - The Consummate and Definitive Edition. Penguin Books Limited. pp. Index s.5. Aissa. ISBN9780241983386.
^ Graves, Robert (2017). The Greek Myths - The Complete and Definitive Edition. Penguin Books Limited. p. 642. ISBN9780241983386.
^ Iliad 16.168–197.
^ ^a ^b Pseudo-Apollodorus. "Bibliotheca, Epitome 3.xx". theoi.com.
^ "Proclus' Summary of the Cypria". Stoa.org. Archived from the original on 9 October 2009. Retrieved nine March 2010.
^ "Dares' business relationship of the destruction of Troy, Greek Mythology Link". Homepage.mac.com. Archived from the original on thirty November 2001. Retrieved 9 March 2010.
^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca iii.151.
^ Iliad 24.257. Cf. Vergil, Aeneid ane.474–478.
^ ^a ^b " Troilus: GreekMythology.com accessed 30 September 2019
^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca Epitome 3.32.
^ Scholia to Lycophron 307; Servius, Scholia to the Aeneid ane.474.
^ James Davidson, "Zeus Be Nice Now" in London Review of Books, 19 July 2007. Accessed 23 October 2007.
^ Plautus, Bacchides 953ff.
^ Iliad nine.334–343.
^ "The Iliad", Fagles translation. Penguin Books, 1991: 22.346.
^ Lattimore, Richmond (2011). The Illiad of Homer . Chicago: The University of Chicago. ISBN978-0-226-46937-9.
^ Propertius, 3.11.15; Quintus Smyrnaeus i.
^ Robin Fox (2011). The Tribal Imagination: Civilization and the Roughshod Mind. Harvard University Press. p. 223. ISBN9780674060944. At that place is certainly no evidence in the text of the Iliad that Achilles and Patroclus were lovers.
^ Martin, Thomas R (2012). Alexander the Great: The Story of an Aboriginal Life. Cambridge University Printing. p. 100. ISBN978-0521148443. The ancient sources do not report, however, what modern scholars have asserted: that Alexander and his very close friend Hephaestion were lovers. Achilles and his equally close friend Patroclus provided the legendary model for this friendship, but Homer in the Iliad never suggested that they had sex activity with each other. (That came from later authors.)
^ Plato, Symposium, 180a; the beauty of Achilles was a topic already broached at Iliad ii.673–674.
^ Kenneth Dover, Greek Homosexuality (Harvard Academy Press, 1978, 1989), p. one et passim.
^ Abrantes 2016: c. iv.3.1
^ Odyssey 24.36–94.
^ Richmond Lattimore (2007). The Odyssey of Homer. New York: Harper Perennial. p. 347. ISBN978-0-06-124418-six.
^ Due east. Hamilton (1969), Mythology. New York: Penguin Books.
^ Odyssey xi.467–564.
^ "Alexander came to remainder at Phaselis, a coastal city which was later renowned for the possession of Achilles' original spear." Robin Lane Pull a fast one on, Alexander the Peachy, 1973, p. 144.
^ Pausanias, iii.3.six; run into Christian Jacob and Anne Mullen-Hohl, "The Greek Traveler'southward Areas of Cognition: Myths and Other Discourses in Pausanias' Clarification of Greece", Yale French Studies 59: Rethinking History: Fourth dimension, Myth, and Writing (1980:65–85, especially 81).
^ "Petteia". Archived nine December 2006 at the Wayback Car
^ "Greek Board Games". Archived 8 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine
^ "Latrunculi". Archived 15 September 2006 at the Wayback Machine
^ Ioannis Kakridis (1988). Ελληνική Μυθολογία [Greek mythology]. Athens: Ekdotiki Athinon. Vol. 5, p. 92.
^ ^a ^b Rose, Charles Brian (2014). The Archaeology of Greek and Roman Troy. Cambridge University Press. p. 79. ISBN9780521762076.
^ Cf. Homer, Iliad 24.80–84.
^ ^a ^b Herodotus, Histories 5.94; Pliny, Naturalis Historia 5.125; Strabo, Geographica 13.1.32 (C596); Diogenes Laërtius 1.74.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^eastward ^f Guy Hedreen (July 1991). "The Cult of Achilles in the Euxine". Hesperia. 60 (3): 313–330. doi:x.2307/148068. JSTOR 148068.
^ Cicero, De Natura Deorum 3.45.
^ Pausanias, Description of Greece three.twenty.8.
^ Lycophron 856.
^ Burgess, Jonathan Southward. (2009). The Death and Afterlife of Achilles. JHU Press. p. 114. ISBN9781421403618.
^ Burgess, Jonathan S. (2009). The Death and Afterlife of Achilles. JHU Press. p. 116. ISBN9781421403618.
^ Perseus Under Philologic: Str. thirteen.1.32.
^ Hildebrecht Hommel (1980). "Der Gott Achilleus". Sitzungsberichte der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften (1): 38–44.
^ J. T. Hooker (1988). "The cults of Achilleus". Rheinisches Museum für Philologie. 131 (3): 1–7.
^ Quintus Smyrnaeus, 3.770–779.
^ Pliny, Naturalis Historia 4.12.83 (chapter four.26).
^ Pliny, Naturalis Historia four.13.93 (chapter iv.27): "Researches which have been made at the present day place this island at a distance of 140 miles from the Borysthenes, of 120 from Tyras, and of fifty from the island of Peuce. Information technology is nearly ten miles in circumference." Though subsequently he speaks again of "the remaining islands in the Gulf of Carcinites" which are "Cephalonesos, Rhosphodusa [or Spodusa], and Macra".
^ Pomponius Mela, De situ orbis 2.7.
^ Proclus, Chrestomathia two.
^ Pindar, Nemea 4.49ff.; Arrian, Periplus of the Euxine Body of water 21.
^ Pindar, Olympia ii.78ff.
^ D. Folio, Lyrica Graeca Selecta, Oxford 1968, p. 89, no. 166.
^ ^a ^b Nicolae Densuşianu: Dacia preistorică. Bucharest: Carol Göbl, 1913.
^ Dionysius Periegetes, Orbis descriptio 5.541, quoted in Densuşianu 1913.
^ Arrian, Periplus of the Euxine Body of water 21; Scholion to Pindar, Nemea 4.79.
^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 3.xix.11.
^ Pausanias, Description of Greece iii.19.13.
^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae 22.eight.
^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 3.25.4.
^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri 1.12.one, Cicero, Pro Archia Poeta 24.
^ Dio Cassius 78.16.7.
^ Pantelis Michelakis, Achilles in Greek Tragedy, 2002, p. 22
^ Plato, Symposium, translated Benjamin Jowett, Dover Thrift Editions, page eight
^ S. Radt. Tragicorum Graecorum fragmenta, vol. 4, (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1977) frr. 149–157a.
^ ^a ^b Latacz 2010
^ Jowett, Benjamin; Plato (xv January 2013). "Lesser Hippias". Projection Gutenberg.
^ Aeneid 2.28, ane.30, three.87.
^ Odes four.6.17–20.
^ Ekonomou, Andrew (2007). Byzantine Rome and the Greek Popes. UK: Lexington Books. p. 123. ISBN9780739119778 . Retrieved 14 September 2015.
^ Jeffreys, Elizabeth; Croke, Brian (1990). Studies in John Malalas. Australian Association for Byzantine Studies, Section of Modern Greek, University of Sydney. p. 206. ISBN9780959362657 . Retrieved 14 September 2015.
^ Entry at Musical Earth.
^ Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011). The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Printing. thirteen + 296 pp. ISBN 978-i-4214-0135-5. ("Achilles", p. ane).
^ Iliad 16.220–252.

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